Major later work, the three volumes of Civilization and Capitalism, was published in 1979. President of the sixth section of the Ecole Des Hautes Etudes and founder and administrator of the. Braudel's emphases remind us that there is more to life than material and economic factors; that the. Capitalism and Material Life, 1400–1800. Braudel, Fernand (translated from the French by Miriam Kochan): New York: Harper and Row, 462 pp., Publication Date: September 26, 1973. Page 74 Published online: 13 Jul 2010. Published online: 13 Jul 2010. Download citation.

• • • Protestantism is the of with collectively more than 900 million adherents worldwide or nearly 40% of all. It originated with the, a movement against what its followers considered to be in the. Ever since, Protestants reject the Roman Catholic doctrine of and, but disagree among themselves regarding the of in the. They emphasize the, ( sola fide) rather than by, and the highest authority of the alone (rather than with ) in faith and ( ). The ' summarize basic theological differences in to the Roman Catholic Church. Protestantism is popularly considered to have begun in in 1517 when published his as a reaction against abuses in the sale of by the, which purported to offer remission of sin to their purchasers.

However, the term derives from the from German Lutheran in 1529 against an of the condemning Martin Luther as. Although there were earlier breaks and attempts to reform of the Roman Catholic Church — notably by,, and — only Luther succeeded in sparking a wider, lasting, movement. In the, spread from into,,,,,, and.

(or Calvinist) denominations spread in Germany,,,, and by such as,, and. The political separation of the from the under sparked in and into this broad Reformation movement. Protestants developed, with major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, and many other fields.

Protestantism is diverse, being more divided and than either the Roman Catholic Church, the,. Without structural unity or central human authority, Protestants spearheaded the concept of an rather than a body of clergy or focused on institutional figures. Some denominations do have a worldwide scope and distribution of membership, while others are confined to a single country. A majority of Protestants are members of a handful of Protestant denominational families:,,,,,, and.,,, independent and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity. Proponents of the consider Protestantism one of the three major divisions of, together with the Roman Catholic Church and Orthodoxy (both Eastern and Oriental).

The Bible translated into by Martin Luther. The supreme authority of is a fundamental principle of Protestantism. Various experts on the subject tried to determine what makes a Christian denomination a part of Protestantism. A common consensus approved by most of them is that if a Christian denomination is to be considered Protestant, it must acknowledge the following three fundamental principles of Protestantism.

Scripture alone The belief, emphasized by Luther, in the Bible as the for the church. The early churches of the Reformation believed in a critical, yet serious, reading of scripture and holding the Bible as a source of authority higher than that of. The many abuses that had occurred in the Western Church before the Protestant Reformation led the Reformers to reject much of its tradition, though some would maintain tradition has been maintained and reorganized in the liturgy and in the confessions of the Protestant churches of the Reformation. In the early 20th century, a less critical reading of the Bible developed in the United States, leading to a 'fundamentalist' reading of Scripture. Christian fundamentalists read the Bible as the 'inerrant, infallible' Word of God, as do the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican and Lutheran churches, but interpret it in a literalist fashion without using the historical critical method.

'Biblical Christianity' focused on a deep study of the Bible is characteristic of most Protestants as opposed to 'Church Christianity,' focused on performing rituals and good works, represented by Catholic and Orthodox traditions. However Quakers and Pentecostalists, emphasize the Holy Spirit and personal closeness to God.. Justification by faith alone The belief that believers are, or pardoned for sin, solely on condition of faith in rather than a combination of faith and. For Protestants, good works are a necessary consequence rather than cause of justification.

Universal priesthood of believers The universal implies the right and duty of the Christian laity not only to read the Bible in the, but also to take part in the government and all the public affairs of the Church. It is opposed to the hierarchical system which puts the essence and authority of the Church in an exclusive priesthood, and makes ordained priests the necessary mediators between God and the people. • • • The Five solae are five phrases (or slogans) that emerged during the and summarize the reformers' basic differences in theological beliefs in opposition to the teaching of the of the day. The Latin word sola means 'alone', 'only', or 'single'. The use of the phrases as summaries of teaching emerged over time during the Reformation, based on the overarching principle of (by scripture alone). This idea contains the four main doctrines on the Bible: that its teaching is needed for salvation (necessity); that all the doctrine necessary for salvation comes from the Bible alone (sufficiency); that everything taught in the Bible is correct (inerrancy); and that, by the Holy Spirit overcoming sin, believers may read and understand truth from the Bible itself, though understanding is difficult, so the means used to guide individual believers to the true teaching is often mutual discussion within the church (clarity).

The necessity and inerrancy were well-established ideas, garnering little criticism, though they later came under debate from outside during the Enlightenment. The most contentious idea at the time though was the notion that anyone could simply pick up the Bible and learn enough to gain salvation. Though the reformers were concerned with ecclesiology (the doctrine of how the church as a body works), they had a different understanding of the process in which truths in scripture were applied to life of believers, compared to the Catholics' idea that certain people within the church, or ideas that were old enough, had a special status in giving understanding of the text. The second main principle, (by faith alone), states that faith in Christ is sufficient alone for eternal salvation. Though argued from scripture, and hence logically consequent to sola scriptura, this is the guiding principle of the work of Luther and the later reformers. Because sola scriptura placed the Bible as the only source of teaching, sola fide epitomises the main thrust of the teaching the reformers wanted to get back to, namely the direct, close, personal connection between Christ and the believer, hence the reformers' contention that their work was Christocentric.

The other solas, as statements, emerged later, but the thinking they represent was also part of the early Reformation. •: Christ alone The Protestants characterize the dogma concerning the Pope as Christ's representative head of the Church on earth, the concept of works made meritorious by Christ, and the Catholic idea of a treasury of the merits of Christ and his saints, as a denial that Christ is the only mediator between and man. Catholics, on the other hand, maintained the traditional understanding of Judaism on these questions, and appealed to the universal consensus of Christian tradition. •: Grace alone Protestants perceived Roman Catholic salvation to be dependent upon the grace of God and the merits of one's own works. The reformers posited that salvation is a gift of God (i.e., God's act of free grace), dispensed by the Holy Spirit owing to the redemptive work of Jesus Christ alone. Consequently, they argued that a sinner is not accepted by God on account of the change wrought in the believer by God's grace, and that the believer is accepted without regard for the merit of his works, for no one deserves salvation.

•: Glory to God alone All glory is due to God alone since salvation is accomplished solely through his will and action—not only the gift of the all-sufficient of on but also the gift of faith in that atonement, created in the heart of the believer by the. The reformers believed that human beings—even saints by the Catholic Church, the popes, and the ecclesiastical hierarchy—are not worthy of the glory. Christ's presence in the Eucharist [ ]. A Lutheran depiction of the by, 1547 The Protestant movement began to diverge into several distinct branches in the mid-to-late 16th century. One of the central points of divergence was controversy over the. Early Protestants rejected the Roman Catholic of, which teaches that the bread and wine used in the sacrificial rite of the Mass lose their natural substance by being transformed into the body, blood, soul, and divinity of Christ.

They disagreed with one another concerning the presence of Christ and his body and blood in Holy Communion. • Lutherans hold that within the the consecrated elements of bread and wine are the true body and blood of Christ 'in, with, and under the form' of bread and wine for all those who eat and drink it, a doctrine that the calls the. God earnestly offers to all who receive the sacrament, forgiveness of sins, and eternal salvation. • The emphasize the, or sacramental presence, of Christ, saying that the sacrament is a means of saving grace through which only the elect believer actually partakes of Christ, but merely with the bread and wine rather than in the elements. Calvinists deny the Lutheran assertion that all communicants, both believers and unbelievers, orally receive Christ's body and blood in the elements of the but instead affirm that Christ is united to the believer through faith—toward which the supper is an outward and visible aid.

This is often referred to as dynamic presence. • A Protestant holding a popular simplification of the, without concern for theological intricacies as hinted at above, may see the Lord's Supper merely as a symbol of the shared faith of the participants, a commemoration of the facts of the crucifixion, and a reminder of their standing together as the body of Christ (a view referred to somewhat derisively as memorialism). Spread of in and In the late 1130s,, an Italian became one of the first theologians to attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church. After his death, his teachings on gained currency among, and later more widely among and the, though no written word of his has survived the official condemnation. In the early 1170s, founded the Waldensians.

He advocated an interpretation of the Gospel that led to conflicts with the Roman Catholic Church. By 1215, the Waldensians were declared heretical and subject to persecution. Despite that, the movement continues to exist to this day in Italy, as. In the 1370s, —later dubbed the 'Morning Star of Reformation'—started his activity as an English reformer. He rejected papal authority over secular power, into, and preached anticlerical and biblically-centred reforms.

Beginning in the first decade of the 15th century, —a Roman Catholic priest, Czech reformist and professor—influenced by John Wycliffe's writings, founded the movement. He strongly advocated his reformist religious denomination. He was and in, in 1415 by secular authorities for unrepentant and persistent heresy.

After his execution, a revolt erupted. Hussites defeated five continuous crusades proclaimed against them by the. Later on, theological disputes caused a split within the Hussite movement. Maintained that both the bread and the wine should be administered to the people during the Eucharist. Another major faction were the, who opposed the Utraquists in the during the. There were two separate parties among the Hussites: moderate and radical movements.

Other smaller regional Hussite branches in included,, and Praguers. The Hussite Wars concluded with the victory of, his Catholic allies and moderate Hussites and the defeat of the radical Hussites. After the war, both moderate and radical Hussitism was increasingly persecuted by the Catholics. Starting in 1475, an Italian Dominican friar was calling for a Christian renewal. Later on, Martin Luther himself read some of the friar's writings and praised him as a martyr and forerunner whose ideas on faith and grace anticipated Luther's own doctrine of justification by faith alone. Some of Hus' followers founded the —'Unity of the Brethren'—which was renewed under the leadership of in, in 1722 after its almost total destruction in the and the.

Today, it is usually referred to in English as the and in German as the. • • • The began as an attempt to reform the. On 31 October 1517 () allegedly nailed his (Disputation on the Power of Indulgences) on the door of the in, Germany, detailing doctrinal and practical abuses of the, especially the selling of. The theses debated and criticized many aspects of the Church and the papacy, including the practice of,, and the authority of the pope. Luther would later write works against the Catholic devotion to, the intercession of and devotion to the saints, the sacraments, mandatory clerical celibacy, monasticism, the authority of the pope, the ecclesiastical law, censure and excommunication, the role of secular rulers in religious matters, the relationship between Christianity and the law, good works, and the sacraments. The was a triumph of literacy and the new invented. Luther's translation of the Bible into German was a decisive moment in the spread of literacy, and stimulated as well the printing and distribution of religious books and pamphlets.

From 1517 onward, religious pamphlets flooded much of Europe. Following the of Luther and condemnation of the Reformation by the Pope, the work and writings of John Calvin were influential in establishing a loose consensus among various groups in Switzerland, Scotland, Hungary, Germany and elsewhere. After the expulsion of its Bishop in 1526, and the unsuccessful attempts of the reformer, Calvin was asked to use the organisational skill he had gathered as a student of law to discipline the city of.

His Ordinances of 1541 involved a collaboration of Church affairs with the City council and consistory to bring morality to all areas of life. After the establishment of the Geneva academy in 1559, Geneva became the unofficial capital of the Protestant movement, providing refuge for Protestant exiles from all over Europe and educating them as Calvinist missionaries. The faith continued to spread after Calvin's death in 1563.

Protestantism also spread from the German lands into France, where the Protestants were nicknamed. Calvin continued to take an interest in the French religious affairs from his base in Geneva. He regularly trained pastors to lead congregations there.

Despite heavy persecution, the Reformed tradition made steady progress across large sections of the nation, appealing to people alienated by the obduracy and the complacency of the Catholic establishment. French Protestantism came to acquire a distinctly political character, made all the more obvious by the conversions of nobles during the 1550s. This established the preconditions for a series of conflicts, known as the. The civil wars gained impetus with the sudden death of in 1559.

Atrocity and outrage became the defining characteristics of the time, illustrated at their most intense in the of August 1572, when the Roman Catholic party annihilated between 30,000 and 100,000 Huguenots across France. The wars only concluded when issued the, promising official toleration of the Protestant minority, but under highly restricted conditions. Roman Catholicism remained the official, and the fortunes of French Protestants gradually declined over the next century, culminating in which revoked the Edict of Nantes and made Roman Catholicism the sole legal religion once again. In response to the Edict of Fontainebleau, declared the, giving free passage to Huguenot refugees. In the late 17th century many Huguenots fled to England, the Netherlands, Prussia, Switzerland, and the English and Dutch overseas colonies. A significant community in France remained in the region. Parallel to events in Germany, a movement began in Switzerland under the leadership of Huldrych Zwingli.

Zwingli was a scholar and preacher, who in 1518 moved to Zurich. Although the two movements agreed on many issues of theology, some unresolved differences kept them separate.

A long-standing resentment between the German states and the led to heated debate over how much Zwingli owed his ideas to Lutheranism. The German Prince saw potential in creating an alliance between Zwingli and Luther. A meeting was held in his castle in 1529, now known as the, which has become infamous for its failure. The two men could not come to any agreement due to their disputation over one key doctrine. In 1534, put an end to all papal jurisdiction in, after the Pope failed to his marriage to; this opened the door to reformational ideas. Reformers in the Church of England alternated between sympathies for ancient Catholic tradition and more Reformed principles, gradually developing into a tradition considered a middle way ( via media) between the Roman Catholic and Protestant traditions. The English Reformation followed a particular course.

The different character of the came primarily from the fact that it was driven initially by the political necessities of Henry VIII. King Henry decided to remove the Church of England from the authority of Rome.

In 1534, the Act of Supremacy recognized Henry as the only Supreme Head on earth of the Church of England. Between 1535 and 1540, under, the policy known as the was put into effect. Following a brief Roman Catholic restoration during the reign of Mary I, a loose consensus developed during the reign of. The largely formed Anglicanism into a distinctive church tradition.

The compromise was uneasy and was capable of veering between extreme Calvinism on the one hand and Roman Catholicism on the other. It was relatively successful until the Puritan Revolution or in the 17th century. The success of the on the Continent and the growth of a dedicated to further Protestant reform polarised the. The early Puritan movement was a movement for reform in the Church of England. The desire was for the Church of England to resemble more closely the Protestant churches of Europe, especially Geneva.

The later Puritan movement, often referred to as and, eventually led to the formation of various Reformed denominations. The of 1560 decisively shaped the. The Reformation in Scotland culminated ecclesiastically in the establishment of a church along Reformed lines, and politically in the triumph of English influence over that of France. John Knox is regarded as the leader of the Scottish Reformation. The of 1560 repudiated the pope's authority by the, forbade the celebration of the Mass and approved a Protestant Confession of Faith.

It was made possible by a revolution against French hegemony under the regime of the regent, who had governed Scotland in the name of her absent. Some of the most important activists of the Protestant Reformation included,,,,,,,,,,,,,, and. In the course of this religious upheaval, the of 1524–25 swept through the, and principalities. After the in the and the, the confessional division of the eventually erupted in the between 1618 and 1648. It devastated much of, killing between 25% and 40% of its population. The main tenets of the, which ended the Thirty Years' War, were: • All parties would now recognise the of 1555, by which each prince would have the right to determine the religion of his own state, the options being Roman Catholicism, Lutheranism, and now Calvinism.

(the principle of ) • Christians living in principalities where their denomination was not the established church were guaranteed the right to practice their faith in public during allotted hours and in private at their will. • The treaty also effectively ended the papacy's pan-European political power. Declared the treaty 'null, void, invalid, iniquitous, unjust, damnable, reprobate, inane, empty of meaning and effect for all times' in his bull Zelo Domus Dei. European sovereigns, Roman Catholic and Protestant alike, ignored his verdict.

• • • The Great Awakenings were periods of rapid and dramatic religious revival in Anglo-American religious history. The was an evangelical and revitalization movement that swept through Protestant Europe and, especially the in the 1730s and 1740s, leaving a permanent impact on. It resulted from powerful preaching that gave listeners a sense of deep personal revelation of their need of salvation by Jesus Christ. Pulling away from ritual, ceremony, sacramentalism and hierarchy, it made Christianity intensely personal to the average person by fostering a deep sense of spiritual conviction and redemption, and by encouraging introspection and a commitment to a new standard of personal morality.

1839 camp meeting during the in the U.S. The began around 1790. It gained momentum by 1800. After 1820, membership rose rapidly among and congregations, whose preachers led the movement. It was past its peak by the late 1840s. It has been described as a reaction against skepticism,, and, although why those forces became pressing enough at the time to spark revivals is not fully understood.

It enrolled millions of new members in existing denominations and led to the formation of new denominations. The refers to a hypothetical historical period that was marked by religious activism in and spans the late 1850s to the early 20th century. It affected Protestant denominations and had a strong element of social activism. It gathered strength from the belief that the of Christ would occur after mankind had reformed the entire earth. It was affiliated with the Movement, which applied Christianity to social issues and gained its force from the Awakening, as did the worldwide missionary movement. New groupings emerged, such as the,, and movements.

The was a Christian religious awakening that some scholars—most notably, —say took place in the United States in the late 1960s and early 1970s, while others look at the era following. The terminology is controversial. Thus, the idea of a Fourth Great Awakening itself has not been generally accepted. In 1814, swept through Calvinist regions in Switzerland and France.

In 1904, a had tremendous impact on the local population. A part of British modernization, it drew many people to churches, especially Methodist and Baptist ones. A noteworthy development in 20th-century Protestant Christianity was the rise of the modern. Sprung from Methodist and roots, it arose out of meetings at an urban mission on in Los Angeles. From there it spread around the world, carried by those who experienced what they believed to be miraculous moves of God there. These Pentecost-like manifestations have steadily been in evidence throughout the history, such as seen in the two Great Awakenings. Pentecostalism, which in turn birthed the within already established denominations, continues to be an important force in.

In the United States and elsewhere in the world, there has been a marked rise in the of Protestant denominations, especially those that are more exclusively evangelical, and a corresponding decline in the. In the post– era, was on the rise, and a considerable number of seminaries held and taught from a liberal perspective as well. In the post– era, the trend began to swing back towards the conservative camp in America's seminaries and church structures.

In Europe, there has been a general move away from religious observance and belief in Christian teachings and a move towards. The is largely responsible for the spread of secularism. Several scholars have argued for a link between the rise of secularism and Protestantism, attributing it to the wide-ranging freedom in the Protestant countries. In North America, South America and Australia Christian religious observance is much higher than in Europe. United States remains particularly religious in comparison to other. South America, historically Roman Catholic, has experienced a large and infusion in the 20th and 21st centuries.

Radical Reformation [ ]. Dissatisfaction with the outcome of a disputation in 1525 prompted to part ways with. Unlike mainstream, and Zwinglian movements, the, which had no state sponsorship, generally abandoned the idea of the 'Church visible' as distinct from the 'Church invisible'. It was a rational extension of the state-approved Protestant dissent, which took the value of independence from constituted authority a step further, arguing the same for the civic realm. The Radical Reformation was non-mainstream, though in parts of Germany, Switzerland and Austria, a majority would sympathize with the Radical Reformation despite the intense persecution it faced from both Roman Catholics and Magisterial Protestants. The early believed that their reformation must purify not only theology but also the actual lives of Christians, especially their political and social relationships. Therefore, the church should not be supported by the state, neither by tithes and taxes, nor by the use of the sword; was a matter of individual conviction, which could not be forced on anyone, but rather required a personal decision for it.

Protestant ecclesial leaders such as and preached the invalidity of infant baptism, advocating baptism as following conversion () instead. This was not a doctrine new to the reformers, but was taught by earlier groups, such as the in 1147. Though most of the Radical Reformers were Anabaptist, some did not identify themselves with the mainstream Anabaptist tradition. Was involved in the. Disagreed theologically with Huldrych Zwingli and Martin Luther, teaching nonviolence and refusing to baptize infants while not rebaptizing adult believers. And were influenced by and. In the view of many associated with the Radical Reformation, the had not gone far enough.

Radical Reformer,, for example, referred to the Lutheran theologians at as the 'new papists'. Since the term 'magister' also means 'teacher', the Magisterial Reformation is also characterized by an emphasis on the authority of a teacher. This is made evident in the prominence of Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli as leaders of the reform movements in their respective areas of ministry. Because of their authority, they were often criticized by Radical Reformers as being too much like the Roman Popes. A more political side of the Radical Reformation can be seen in the thought and practice of, although typically Anabaptism has been associated with pacifism. Anabaptism in shape of its various diversification such as the, and came out of the Radical Reformation.

Later in history,,, and the would emerge in Anabaptist circles. Denominations [ ]. Protestants refer to specific groupings of congregations or churches that share in common foundational doctrines and the name of their groups as.

The term denomination (national body) is to be distinguished from branch (denominational family; tradition), communion (international body) and congregation (church). An example (this is no universal way to classify Protestant churches, as these may sometimes vary broadly in their structures) to show the difference: Branch/denominational family/tradition: Communion/international body: Denomination/national body: Congregation/church: Protestants reject the Roman Catholic Church's doctrine that it is the, believing in the invisible church, which consists of all who profess faith in Jesus Christ.

Some Protestant denominations are less accepting of other denominations, and the basic orthodoxy of some is questioned by most of the others. Individual denominations also have formed over very subtle theological differences. Other denominations are simply regional or ethnic expressions of the same beliefs. Because the five solas are the main tenets of the Protestant faith, groups and organizations are also considered Protestant.

Various have attempted cooperation or reorganization of the various divided Protestant denominations, according to various models of union, but divisions continue to outpace unions, as there is no overarching authority to which any of the churches owe allegiance, which can authoritatively define the faith. Most denominations share common beliefs in the major aspects of the Christian faith while differing in many secondary doctrines, although what is major and what is secondary is a matter of idiosyncratic belief. Several countries have their, linking the ecclesiastical structure with the state.

Jurisdictions where a Protestant denomination has been established as a state religion include several; Denmark (including Greenland), ( being independent since 2007), Iceland and Norway have established churches. Has in the world, while —. The is the officially established religious institution in England, and also the of the worldwide. In 1869, Finland was the first Nordic country to by introducing the Church Act. Although the church still maintains a special relationship with the state, it is not described as a in the or other laws passed by the. In 2000, Sweden was the second Nordic country to do so.

United and uniting churches [ ]. See also: United and uniting churches are churches formed from the merger or other form of union of two or more different Protestant denominations. Historically, unions of Protestant churches were enforced by the state, usually in order to have a stricter control over the religious sphere of its people, but also other organizational reasons. As modern progresses, unions between various Protestant traditions are becoming more and more common, resulting in a growing number of united and uniting churches. Some of the recent major examples are the (2013) and the (2004).

As mainline Protestantism shrinks in and due to the rise of, and denominations merge, often creating large nationwide denominations. The phenomenon is much less common among, and churches as new ones arise and plenty of them remain independent of each other. Perhaps the oldest official united church is found in, where the is a federation of, United () and, a union dating back to 1817.

The first of the series of unions was at a synod in to form the in August 1817, commemorated in naming the church of Idstein one hundred years later. Around the world, each united or uniting church comprises a different mix of predecessor Protestant denominations. Trends are visible, however, as most united and uniting churches have one or more predecessors with heritage in the and many are members of the. Major branches [ ] Protestants can be differentiated according to how they have been influenced by important movements since the Reformation, today regarded as branches.

Some of these movements have a common lineage, sometimes directly spawning individual denominations. Due to the earlier stated multitude of, this section discusses only the largest denominational families, or branches, widely considered to be a part of Protestantism. These are, in alphabetical order:,,,,, and. A small but historically significant branch is also discussed.

The chart below shows the mutual relations and historical origins of the main Protestant denominational families, or their parts. Main article: Adventism began in the 19th century in the context of the revival in the. The name refers to belief in the imminent. Started the Adventist movement in the 1830s. His followers became known as. Although the Adventist churches hold much in common, their differ on whether the is or consciousness, whether the ultimate punishment of the wicked is or eternal torment, the nature of immortality, whether or not the wicked are resurrected after the millennium, and whether the sanctuary of refers to the one in or one on earth. The movement has encouraged the examination of the whole, leading Seventh-day Adventists and some smaller Adventist groups to observe the.

The has compiled that church's core beliefs in (1980 and 2005), which use Biblical references as justification. In 2010, Adventism claimed some 22 million believers scattered in various independent churches.

The largest church within the movement—the —has more than 18 million members. Main article: Anabaptism traces its origins to the. Anabaptists believe in delaying until the candidate confesses his or her faith. Although some consider this movement to be an offshoot of Protestantism, others see it as a distinct one. The,, and are direct descendants of the movement.,, and the are considered later developments among the Anabaptists. The name Anabaptist, meaning 'one who baptizes again', was given them by their persecutors in reference to the practice of re-baptizing converts who already had been baptized as infants. Anabaptists required that baptismal candidates be able to make their own confessions of faith and so rejected.

The early members of this movement did not accept the name Anabaptist, claiming that since infant baptism was unscriptural and null and void, the baptizing of believers was not a re-baptism but in fact their first real baptism. As a result of their views on the nature of baptism and other issues, Anabaptists were heavily persecuted during the 16th century and into the 17th by both and. While most Anabaptists adhered to a, which precluded taking oaths, participating in military actions, and participating in civil government, some who practiced re-baptism felt otherwise. They were thus technically Anabaptists, even though conservative,, and and some historians tend to consider them as outside of true Anabaptism.

Anabaptist reformers of the Radical Reformation are divided into Radical and the so-called Second Front. Some important Radical Reformation theologians were,,,,. Second Front Reformers included,, and. Main article: Anglicanism comprises the and churches which are historically tied to it or hold similar beliefs, worship practices and church structures. The word Anglican originates in ecclesia anglicana, a phrase dating to at least 1246 that means the English Church. There is no single 'Anglican Church' with universal juridical authority, since each national or regional church has full. As the name suggests, the communion is an association of churches in with the.

The great majority of Anglicans are members of churches which are part of the international, which has 85 million adherents. The Church of England declared its independence from the Catholic Church at the time of the. Many of the new Anglican formularies of the mid-16th century corresponded closely to those of contemporary Reformed tradition. These reforms were understood by one of those most responsible for them, the then Archbishop of Canterbury,, as navigating a middle way between two of the emerging Protestant traditions, namely Lutheranism and Calvinism.

By the end of the century, the retention in Anglicanism of many traditional liturgical forms and of the episcopate was already seen as unacceptable by those promoting the most developed Protestant principles. Unique to Anglicanism is the, the collection of services that worshippers in most Anglican churches used for centuries. While it has since undergone many revisions and Anglican churches in different countries have developed other service books, the Book of Common Prayer is still acknowledged as one of the ties that bind the Anglican Communion together. Main article: Baptists subscribe to a doctrine that baptism should be performed only for professing believers (, as opposed to ), and that it must be done by complete (as opposed to or ). Other of Baptist churches include (liberty), through, as the rule of faith and practice, and the autonomy of the local. Baptists recognize two ministerial offices, and. Baptist churches are widely considered to be Protestant churches, though some Baptists disavow this identity.

Diverse from their beginning, those identifying as Baptists today differ widely from one another in what they believe, how they worship, their attitudes toward other Christians, and their understanding of what is important in Christian discipleship. Historians trace the earliest church labeled Baptist back to 1609 in, with as its pastor. In accordance with his reading of the, he rejected baptism of infants and instituted baptism only of believing adults. Baptist practice spread to England, where the General Baptists considered Christ's atonement to extend to all people, while the Particular Baptists believed that it extended only to.

In 1638, established the. In the mid-18th century, the increased Baptist growth in both New England and the South. The in the South in the early 19th century increased church membership, as did the preachers' lessening of support for and of, which had been part of the 18th-century teachings. Baptist missionaries have spread their church to every continent. The reports more than 41 million members in more than 150,000 congregations.

In 2002, there were over 100 million Baptists and Baptistic group members worldwide and over 33 million in North America. The largest Baptist association is the, with the membership of associated churches totaling more than 15 million. Main article: Calvinism, also called the Reformed tradition, was advanced by several theologians such as,,, and Huldrych Zwingli, but this branch of Christianity bears the name of the French reformer John Calvin because of his prominent influence on it and because of his role in the confessional and ecclesiastical debates throughout the 16th century. Today, this term also refers to the doctrines and practices of the of which Calvin was an early leader.

Less commonly, it can refer to the individual teaching of Calvin himself. The particulars of Calvinist theology may be stated in a number of ways. Perhaps the best known summary is contained in the, though these points identify the Calvinist view on rather than summarizing the system as a whole. Broadly speaking, Calvinism stresses the sovereignty or rule of God in all things—in salvation but also in all of life. This concept is seen clearly in the doctrines of and.

The biggest Reformed association is the with more than 80 million members in 211 member denominations around the world. There are more conservative Reformed federations like the and the, as well as. Main article: Lutheranism identifies with the of Martin Luther—a friar, reformer, and theologian. Lutheranism advocates a doctrine of justification 'by through on the basis of ', the doctrine that scripture is the final authority on all matters of faith, denying the belief of the Catholic Church defined at the concerning authority coming from both the Scriptures and. In addition, Lutheranism accepts the teachings of the first four of the undivided Christian Church. Unlike the Reformed tradition, Lutherans retain many of the practices and teachings of the pre-Reformation Church, with a particular emphasis on the, or Lord's Supper. Lutheran theology differs from Reformed theology in, the purpose of, the divine, the concept of, and.

Today, Lutheranism is one of the largest branches of Protestantism. With approximately 80 million adherents, it constitutes the third most common Protestant confession after historically and.

The, the largest global communion of Lutheran churches represents over 72 million people. Additionally, there are also many smaller bodies such as the and the, as well as. Main article: Methodism identifies principally with the of —an priest and evangelist.

This evangelical movement originated as a within the 18th-century and became a separate Church following Wesley's death. Because of vigorous missionary activity, the movement spread throughout the, the United States, and beyond, today claiming approximately 80 million adherents worldwide.

Originally it appealed especially to labourers and slaves., most Methodists are, emphasizing that Christ accomplished salvation for every human being, and that humans must exercise an act of the will to receive it (as opposed to the traditional Calvinist doctrine of ). Methodism is traditionally in liturgy, although this varies greatly between individual congregations; the Wesleys themselves greatly valued the Anglican liturgy and tradition. Methodism is known for its rich musical tradition; John Wesley's brother,, was instrumental in writing much of the of the Methodist Church, and many other eminent hymn writers come from the Methodist tradition. Main article: Pentecostalism is a movement that places special emphasis on a direct personal experience of through the.

The term Pentecostal is derived from, the name for the Jewish. For Christians, this event commemorates the descent of the upon the followers of, as described in the of the.

This branch of Protestantism is distinguished by belief in the baptism with the Holy Spirit as an experience separate from that enables a Christian to live a Holy Spirit–filled and empowered life. This empowerment includes the use of such as and —two other defining characteristics of Pentecostalism. Because of their commitment to biblical authority, spiritual gifts, and the miraculous, Pentecostals tend to see their movement as reflecting the same kind of spiritual power and teachings that were found in the of the. For this reason, some Pentecostals also use the term Apostolic or to describe their movement. Pentecostalism eventually spawned hundreds of new denominations, including large groups such as the Assemblies of God and the Church of God in Christ, both in the United States and elsewhere. There are over 279 million Pentecostals worldwide, and the movement is growing in many parts of the world, especially the. Since the 1960s, Pentecostalism has increasingly gained acceptance from other Christian traditions, and Pentecostal beliefs concerning Spirit baptism and spiritual gifts have been embraced by non-Pentecostal Christians in Protestant and churches through the.

Together, numbers over 500 million adherents. Main article: There are many other Protestant denominations that do not fit neatly into the mentioned branches, and are far smaller in membership. Some groups of individuals who hold basic Protestant tenets identify themselves simply as 'Christians' or ' Christians'. They typically distance themselves from the and/or creedalism of other Christian communities by calling themselves ' or '. Often founded by individual pastors, they have little affiliation with historic denominations. Follows the teachings of Czech reformer Jan Hus, who became the best-known representative of the and one of the forerunners of the Protestant Reformation. This predominantly religious movement was propelled by social issues and strengthened national awareness.

Among present-day Christians, Hussite traditions are represented in the,, and the refounded churches. The are a, low church, evangelical, whose history can be traced to, Ireland, in the late 1820s, originating from. Among other beliefs, the group emphasizes sola scriptura. Brethren generally see themselves not as a denomination, but as a network, or even as a collection of overlapping networks, of like-minded independent churches. Although the group refused for many years to take any denominational name to itself—a stance that some of them still maintain—the title The Brethren, is one that many of their number are comfortable with in that the Bible designates all believers as brethren. The Holiness movement refers to a set of beliefs and practices emerging from 19th-century Methodism, and a number of evangelical denominations, parachurch organizations, and movements which emphasized those beliefs as a central doctrine. There are an estimated 12 million adherents in Holiness movement churches.

And are notable examples., or Friends, are members of a family of religious movements collectively known as the Religious Society of Friends. The central unifying doctrine of these movements is the. Many Friends view themselves as members of a Christian denomination. They include those with,,, and traditional understandings of. Unlike many other groups that emerged within Christianity, the Religious Society of Friends has actively tried to avoid and hierarchical structures. Is sometimes considered Protestant due to its origins in the Reformation and strong cooperation with other Protestants since the 16th century. It is excluded due to its nature.

Unitarians can be regarded as Nontrinitarian Protestants, or simply Nontrinitarians. Unitarianism has been popular in the within today's, England, and the United States. It originated almost simultaneously in Transylvania and the. A night shelter of in Geneva, Switzerland.

Interdenominational movements [ ] There are also Christian movements which cross denominational lines and even branches, and cannot be classified on the same level previously mentioned forms. Is a prominent example. Some of those movements are active exclusively within Protestantism, some are Christian-wide.

Transdenominational movements are sometimes capable of affecting parts of the, such as does it the, which aims to incorporate beliefs and practices similar to into the various branches of Christianity. Are sometimes regarded as a subgroup of the Charismatic Movement. Both are put under a common label of (so-called Renewalists), along with Pentecostals.

And various often adopt, or are akin to one of these movements. Are usually influenced by interdenominational movements. Globally, these large congregations are a significant development in Protestant Christianity.

In the United States, the phenomenon has more than quadrupled in the past two decades. It has since spread worldwide. The chart below shows the mutual relations and historical origins of the main interdenominational movements and other developments within Protestantism. Main article: Evangelicalism, or Evangelical Protestantism, is a worldwide, transdenominational movement which maintains that the essence of consists in the doctrine of by through in 's.

Evangelicals are who believe in the centrality of the conversion or in receiving salvation, believe in the authority of the Bible as God's revelation to humanity and have a strong commitment to evangelism or sharing the Christian message. It gained great momentum in the 18th and 19th centuries with the emergence of and the in Britain and North America.

The origins of Evangelicalism are usually traced back to the English movement,, the,, and. Among leaders and major figures of the Evangelical Protestant movement were,,,,, and. There are an estimated 285,480,000 Evangelicals, corresponding to 13.1% of the and 4.1% of the. The Americas, Africa and Asia are home to the majority of Evangelicals. The United States has the largest concentration of Evangelicals. Evangelicalism is gaining popularity both in and outside the English-speaking world, especially in Latin America and the.

Main article: The Charismatic movement is the international trend of historically mainstream congregations adopting beliefs and practices similar to. Fundamental to the movement is the use of. Among Protestants, the movement began around 1960. In America, Episcopalian is sometimes cited as one of the charismatic movement's seminal influence. In the,,, and others were in the vanguard of similar developments.

The conference in New Zealand, 1964 was attended by several Anglicans, including the Rev. Ray Muller, who went on to invite Bennett to New Zealand in 1966, and played a leading role in developing and promoting the Life in the Spirit seminars. Other Charismatic movement leaders in New Zealand include. Larry Christenson, a Lutheran theologian based in, did much in the 1960s and 1970s to interpret the charismatic movement for Lutherans. A very large annual conference regarding that matter was held in. Charismatic Lutheran congregations in Minnesota became especially large and influential; especially 'Hosanna!'

In Lakeville, and North Heights in St. The next generation of Lutheran charismatics cluster around the. There is considerable charismatic activity among young Lutheran leaders in California centered around an annual gathering at Robinwood Church in Huntington Beach.

's Touched by the Spirit published in 1974, played a major role of the Lutheran understanding to the charismatic movement. In Congregational and Presbyterian churches which profess a traditionally or there are differing views regarding present-day or of the gifts ( charismata) of the Spirit. Generally, however, Reformed charismatics distance themselves from renewal movements with tendencies which could be perceived as overemotional, such as,, and. Prominent Reformed charismatic denominations are the and the Churches in the US, in Great Britain there is the churches and movement, which leading figure is. A minority of today are charismatic. They are strongly associated with those holding more. In the early decades of the church charismatic or ecstatic phenomena were commonplace.

Neo-charismatic churches [ ]. Main article: Neo-charismatic churches are a category of in the Christian movement. Neo-charismatics include the, but are broader. Now more numerous than Pentecostals (first wave) and charismatics (second wave) combined, owing to the remarkable growth of and independent charismatic groups.

Neo-charismatics believe in and stress the post-Biblical availability of, including, healing, and prophecy. They practice laying on of hands and seek the 'infilling' of the.

However, a specific experience of may not be requisite for experiencing such gifts. No single form, governmental structure, or style of church service characterizes all neo-charismatic services and churches. Some nineteen thousand denominations, with approximately 295 million individual adherents, are identified as neo-charismatic. Neo-charismatic tenets and practices are found in many independent, nondenominational or post-denominational congregations, with strength of numbers centered in the, among the, and in Latin American churches.

Other Protestant developments [ ] A plenty of other movements and thoughts to be distinguished from the widespread transdenominational ones and branches appeared within Protestant Christianity. Some of them are also in evidence today. Others appeared during the centuries following the Reformation and disappeared gradually with the time, such as much of. Some inspired the current transdenominational ones, such as which has its foundation in the. Arminianism [ ].

Jacobus Arminius was a Dutch Reformed theologian, whose views influenced parts of Protestantism. A small Remonstrant community remains in the Netherlands. Arminianism is based on ideas of the theologian (1560–1609) and his historic supporters known as. His teachings held to the of the Reformation, but they were distinct from particular teachings of,,, and other.

Jacobus Arminius was a student of at the Theological University of Geneva. Arminianism is known to some as a diversification of. However, to others, Arminianism is a reclamation of early Church theological consensus. Dutch Arminianism was originally articulated in the Remonstrance (1610), a theological statement signed by 45 ministers and submitted to the. Many Christian denominations have been influenced by Arminian views on the will of man being freed by grace prior to regeneration, notably the in the 16th century, the in the 18th century and the in the 19th century. The original beliefs of Jacobus Arminius himself are commonly defined as Arminianism, but more broadly, the term may embrace the teachings of,, and others as well.

And are the two main schools of thought. Wesleyan Arminianism is often identical with Methodism. The two systems of Calvinism and Arminianism share both history and many doctrines, and the.

However, because of their differences over the doctrines of divine and election, many people view these schools of thought as opposed to each other. In short, the difference can be seen ultimately by whether God allows His desire to save all to be resisted by an individual's will (in the Arminian doctrine) or if God's grace is irresistible and limited to only some (in Calvinism). Some Calvinists assert that the Arminian perspective presents a synergistic system of Salvation and therefore is not only by grace, while Arminians firmly reject this conclusion. Many consider the theological differences to be crucial differences in doctrine, while others find them to be relatively minor.

Main articles: and Pietism was an influential movement within that combined the 17th century Lutheran principles with the emphasis on individual piety and living a vigorous life. It began in the late 17th century, reached its zenith in the mid-18th century, and declined through the 19th century, and had almost vanished in America by the end of the 20th century. While declining as an identifiable Lutheran group, some of its theological tenets influenced Protestantism generally, inspiring the priest to begin the movement and to begin the movement among. Though Pietism shares an emphasis on personal behavior with the movement, and the two are often confused, there are important differences, particularly in the concept of the role of religion in government.

Main articles:,,,,,, and The Puritans were a group of English Protestants in the and, which sought to purify the of what they considered to be practices, maintaining that the church was only partially reformed. Puritanism in this sense was founded by some of the returning shortly after the accession of in 1558, as an activist movement within the. Puritans were blocked from changing the established church from within, and were severely restricted in England by laws controlling the practice of religion. Their beliefs, however, were transported by the emigration of congregations to the Netherlands (and later to New England), and by evangelical clergy to Ireland (and later into Wales), and were spread into lay society and parts of the educational system, particularly certain colleges of the.

They took on distinctive beliefs about clerical dress and in opposition to the system, particularly after the 1619 conclusions of the they were resisted by the English bishops. They largely adopted in the 17th century, and were influenced. They formed, and identified with various religious groups advocating greater purity of and, as well as personal and group. Puritans adopted a, but they also took note of radical criticisms of Zwingli in Zurich and Calvin in Geneva.

In church polity, some advocated for separation from all other Christians, in favor of autonomous. These separatist and strands of Puritanism became prominent in the 1640s, when the supporters of a in the were unable to forge a new English national church. Baotian Bt49qt 20b2 Manual Arts. Nonconforming Protestants along with the Protestant refugees from continental Europe were the primary founders of the United States of America. Often regarded as the greatest Protestant theologian of the twentieth century A non-fundamentalist rejection of liberal Christianity, associated primarily with and, neo-orthodoxy sought to counter-act the tendency of liberal theology to make theological accommodations to modern scientific perspectives.

Sometimes called 'Crisis theology', according to the influence of philosophical on some important segments of the movement; also, somewhat confusingly, sometimes called neo-evangelicalism. Paleo-orthodoxy is a movement similar in some respects to neo-evangelicalism but emphasizing the ancient Christian consensus of the undivided church of the first millennium AD, including in particular the early creeds and church councils as a means of properly understanding the scriptures. This movement is cross-denominational and the most notable exponent in the movement is theologian. Christian fundamentalism [ ].

Main article: In reaction to liberal Bible critique, arose in the 20th century, primarily in the United States, among those denominations most affected by Evangelicalism. Fundamentalist theology tends to stress and. Toward the end of the 20th century, some have tended to confuse evangelicalism and fundamentalism; however, the labels represent very distinct differences of approach that both groups are diligent to maintain, although because of fundamentalism's dramatically smaller size it often gets classified simply as an ultra-conservative branch of evangelicalism.

Modernism and liberalism [ ]. Although the Reformation was a religious movement, it also had a strong impact on all other aspects of life: marriage and family, education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy, and the arts. Protestant churches reject the idea of a celibate priesthood and thus allow their clergy to marry.

Many of their families contributed to the development of intellectual elites in their countries. Since about 1950, women have entered the ministry, and some have assumed leading positions (e.g. ), in most Protestant churches. As the Reformers wanted all members of the church to be able to read the Bible, education on all levels got a strong boost. By the middle of the eighteenth century, the literacy rate in England was about 60 per cent, in Scotland 65 per cent, and in Sweden eight of ten men and women were able to read and to write. Colleges and universities were founded. For example, the who established in 1628 founded only eight years later.

About a dozen other colleges followed in the 18th century, including (1701). Also became a centre of learning. Members of denominations have played, including politics, business, science, the arts, and education.

They founded most of the country's leading institutes of higher education. Thought and work ethic [ ].

See also: The Protestant concept of God and man allows believers to use all their God-given faculties, including the power of reason. That means that they are allowed to explore God's creation and, according to, make use of it in a responsible and sustainable way. Thus a cultural climate was created that greatly enhanced the development of the and the. Another consequence of the Protestant understanding of man is that the believers, in gratitude for their election and redemption in Christ, are to follow God's commandments.

Industry, frugality, calling, discipline, and a strong sense of responsibility are at the heart of their moral code. In particular, Calvin rejected luxury. Java Object Serialization Compatibility. Therefore, craftsmen, industrialists, and other businessmen were able to reinvest the greater part of their profits in the most efficient machinery and the most modern production methods that were based on progress in the sciences and technology. As a result, productivity grew, which led to increased profits and enabled employers to pay higher wages.

In this way, the economy, the sciences, and technology reinforced each other. The chance to participate in the economic success of technological inventions was a strong incentive to both inventors and investors. The was an important force behind the unplanned and uncoordinated that influenced the development of and the.

This idea is also known as the 'Protestant ethic thesis.' However, eminent historian (d. 1985), a leader of the important wrote: 'all historians have opposed this tenuous theory [the Protestant Ethic], although they have not managed to be rid of it once and for all. Yet it is clearly false. The northern countries took over the place that earlier had been so long and brilliantly been occupied by the old capitalist centers of the Mediterranean.

They invented nothing, either in technology or business management.' Social scientist moreover comments that 'during their critical period of economic development, these northern centers of capitalism were Catholic, not Protestant — the Reformation still lay well into the future,' while British historian Hugh Trevor-Roper (d. 2003) said, 'The idea that large-scale industrial capitalism was ideologically impossible before the Reformation is exploded by the simple fact that it existed.' In a of the latest wave of data, () found that Protestantism emerges to be very close to combining religion and the traditions of.

The Global Value Development Index, calculated by Tausch, relies on the World Values Survey dimensions such as trust in the state of law, no support for shadow economy, postmaterial activism, support for democracy, a non-acceptance of violence, xenophobia and racism, trust in transnational capital and Universities, confidence in the market economy, supporting gender justice, and engaging in environmental activism, etc. And, as well as other, tend to be considerably wealthier and better educated (having and degrees per capita) than most other religious groups in, and are disproportionately represented in the upper reaches of American, and, especially the. Numbers of the most as the and the,,,,,, the and Harrimans are families. Established by the Protestantism has had an important influence on science. According to the, there was a positive between the rise of English and German on the one hand and early on the other. The Merton Thesis has two separate parts: Firstly, it presents a theory that science changes due to an accumulation of observations and improvement in experimental technique and; secondly, it puts forward the argument that the popularity of science in 17th-century England and the religious of the (English scientists of that time were predominantly Puritans or other Protestants) can be explained by a between Protestantism and the scientific values. Merton focused on English Puritanism and German Pietism as having been responsible for the development of the of the 17th and 18th centuries.

He explained that the connection between and interest in science was the result of a significant synergy between the Protestant values and those of modern science. Protestant values encouraged scientific research by allowing science to identify God's influence on the world—his creation—and thus providing a religious justification for scientific research. According to Scientific Elite: Nobel Laureates in the United States by, a review of American Nobel prizes awarded between 1901 and 1972, 72% of American laureates identified a Protestant background. Overall, 84.2% of all the Nobel Prizes awarded to Americans in, 60% in, and 58.6% in between 1901 and 1972 were won by Protestants. According to 100 Years of Nobel Prize (2005), a review of Nobel prizes awarded between 1901 and 2000, 65.4% of Laureates, in its various forms as their religious preference (423 prizes).

While 32% have identified with Protestantism in its various forms (208 prizes), although Protestant comprise 11.6% to 13% of the world's population. Government [ ]. Church flags, as used by German Protestants. In the Middle Ages, the Church and the worldly authorities were closely related. Martin Luther separated the religious and the worldly realms in principle ().

The believers were obliged to use reason to govern the worldly sphere in an orderly and peaceful way. Luther's doctrine of the upgraded the role of laymen in the church considerably. The members of a congregation had the right to elect a minister and, if necessary, to vote for his dismissal (Treatise On the right and authority of a Christian assembly or congregation to judge all doctrines and to call, install and dismiss teachers, as testified in Scripture; 1523).

Calvin strengthened this basically democratic approach by including elected laymen (, ) in his representative church government. The added regional and a national synod, whose members were elected by the congregations, to Calvin's system of church self-government. This system was taken over by the other reformed churches. Politically, Calvin favoured a mixture of aristocracy and democracy. He appreciated the advantages of: 'It is an invaluable gift, if God allows a people to freely elect its own authorities and overlords.'

Calvin also thought that earthly rulers lose their divine right and must be put down when they rise up against God. To further protect the rights of ordinary people, Calvin suggested separating political powers in a system of checks and balances (). Thus he and his followers resisted political and paved the way for the rise of modern democracy. Besides England, the Netherlands were, under Calvinist leadership, the freest country in Europe in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It granted asylum to philosophers like and. Was able to teach his natural-law theory and a relatively liberal interpretation of the Bible. Consistent with Calvin's political ideas, Protestants created both the English and the American democracies.

In seventeenth-century England, the most important persons and events in this process were the,,,, the, the, and the. Later, the British took their democratic ideals to their colonies, e.g. Australia, New Zealand, and India. In North America, (; 1620) and (1628) practised democratic self-rule and. These were convinced that the democratic form of government was the will of God. Rights and liberty [ ]. Protestant and philosopher argued for individual conscience, free from state control.

Protestants also took the initiative in advocating for. Freedom of conscience had high priority on the theological, philosophical, and political agendas since Luther refused to recant his beliefs before the Diet of the at Worms (1521). In his view, faith was a free work of the Holy Spirit and could, therefore, not be forced on a person. The persecuted Anabaptists and Huguenots demanded freedom of conscience, and they practised. In the early seventeenth century, Baptists like and published tracts in defense of religious freedom.

Their thinking influenced and 's stance on tolerance. Under the leadership of Baptist, Congregationalist, and Quaker, respectively,,, and combined democratic constitutions with freedom of religion. These colonies became safe havens for persecuted religious minorities, including. The, the, and the American with its fundamental human rights made this tradition permanent by giving it a legal and political framework. The great majority of American Protestants, both clergy and laity, strongly supported the independence movement. All major Protestant churches were represented in the First and Second Continental Congresses. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the American democracy became a model for numerous other countries and regions throughout the world (e.g., Latin America, Japan, and Germany).

The strongest link between the American and was, an ardent supporter of the American constitutional principles. The French was mainly based on Lafayette's draft of this document. The and also echo the American constitutional tradition. Democracy, social-contract theory, separation of powers, religious freedom, separation of church and state – these achievements of the Reformation and early Protestantism were elaborated on and popularized by thinkers. Some of the philosophers of the English, Scottish, German, and Swiss Enlightenment –,,,,,,, and – had Protestant backgrounds. For example, John Locke, whose political thought was based on 'a set of Protestant Christian assumptions', derived the equality of all humans, including the equality of the genders ('Adam and Eve'), from Genesis 1, 26–28.

As all persons were created equally free, all governments needed 'the consent of the governed.' These Lockean ideas were fundamental to the United States Declaration of Independence, which also deduced human rights from the biblical belief in creation: 'We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.' Also, other human rights were advocated for by some Protestants. For example, was abolished in in 1740, in Britain in 1834 and in the United States in 1865 (,, – against Southern Protestants).

And were among the first thinkers who made significant contributions to. The, an important part of humanitarian, was largely the work of, a reformed. He also founded the. Social teaching [ ]. The founded by Congregationalist and aimed at empowering young people Protestants have founded hospitals, homes for disabled or elderly people, educational institutions, organizations that give aid to developing countries, and other social welfare agencies. In the nineteenth century, throughout the Anglo-American world, numerous dedicated members of all Protestant denominations were active in social reform movements such as the abolition of slavery, prison reforms, and. As an answer to the 'social question' of the nineteenth century, Germany under Chancellor introduced insurance programs that led the way to the (,,, ).

To Bismarck this was 'practical Christianity'. These programs, too, were copied by many other nations, particularly in the Western world. Arts [ ] The arts have been strongly inspired by Protestant beliefs. Martin Luther,,,,,, and many other authors and composers created well-known church hymns. Musicians like,,,,, and composed great works of music. Prominent painters with Protestant background were, for example,,,,,, and.

World literature was enriched by the works of,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, and many others. Of French Protestants, 1572.

The view of the is that Protestant denominations cannot be considered churches but rather that they are ecclesial communities or specific faith-believing communities because their ordinances and doctrines are not historically the same as the Catholic sacraments and dogmas, and the Protestant communities have no sacramental ministerial priesthood and therefore lack true. According to Bishop the shares the same view on the subject. Contrary to how the Protestant Reformers were often characterized, the concept of a catholic or universal Church was not brushed aside during the Protestant Reformation. On the contrary, the visible unity of the catholic or universal church was seen by the Protestant reformers as an important and essential doctrine of the Reformation. The Magisterial reformers, such as Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Huldrych Zwingli, believed that they were reforming the Roman Catholic Church, which they viewed as having become corrupted. Each of them took very seriously the charges of schism and innovation, denying these charges and maintaining that it was the Roman Catholic Church that had left them.

In order to justify their departure from the Roman Catholic Church, Protestants often posited a new argument, saying that there was no real visible Church with divine authority, only a spiritual, invisible, and hidden church—this notion began in the early days of the Protestant Reformation. Wherever the Magisterial Reformation, which received support from the ruling authorities, took place, the result was a reformed national Protestant church envisioned to be a part of the whole invisible church, but disagreeing, in certain important points of doctrine and doctrine-linked practice, with what had until then been considered the normative reference point on such matters, namely the Papacy and central authority of the Roman Catholic Church. The Reformed churches thus believed in some form of Catholicity, founded on their doctrines of the five solas and a visible organization based on the 14th and 15th century, rejecting the and in favor of, but rejecting the latest ecumenical council, the. Religious unity therefore became not one of doctrine and identity but one of invisible character, wherein the unity was one of faith in Jesus Christ, not common identity, doctrine, belief, and collaborative action. There are Protestants, especially of the, that either reject or down-play the designation Protestant because of the negative idea that the word invokes in addition to its primary meaning, preferring the designation Reformed, Evangelical or even Reformed Catholic expressive of what they call a Reformed Catholicity and defending their arguments from the traditional Protestant confessions. Ecumenism [ ].

The Edinburgh Missionary Conference is considered the symbolic starting point of the contemporary ecumenical movement. The ecumenical movement has had an influence on churches, beginning at least in 1910 with the. Its origins lay in the recognition of the need for cooperation on the mission field in Africa, Asia and Oceania. Since 1948, the has been influential, but ineffective in creating a united church. There are also ecumenical bodies at regional, national and local levels across the globe; but schisms still far outnumber unifications. One, but not the only expression of the ecumenical movement, has been the move to form united churches, such as the, the, the US-based, the, the and the which have rapidly declining memberships.

There has been a strong engagement of churches in the ecumenical movement, though the reaction of individual Orthodox theologians has ranged from tentative approval of the aim of Christian unity to outright condemnation of the perceived effect of watering down Orthodox doctrine. A Protestant is held to be valid by the Catholic Church if given with the trinitarian formula and with the intent to baptize.

However, as the ordination of Protestant ministers is not recognized due to the lack of and the disunity from Catholic Church, all other sacraments (except marriage) performed by Protestant denominations and ministers are not recognized as valid. Therefore, Protestants desiring full communion with the Catholic Church are not re-baptized (although they are confirmed) and Protestant ministers who become Catholics may be ordained to the after a period of study. In 1999, the representatives of and Catholic Church signed the, apparently resolving the conflict over the nature of which was at the root of the Protestant Reformation, although reject this statement. This is understandable, since there is no compelling authority within them. On 18 July 2006, delegates to the World Methodist Conference voted unanimously to adopt the Joint Declaration.

Spread and demographics [ ]. Countries by percentage of Protestants. There are more than 900 million Protestants worldwide, among approximately 2.4 billion Christians. In 2010, a total of more than 800 million included 300 million in Sub-Saharan Africa, 260 million in the Americas, 140 million in Asia-Pacific region, 100 million in Europe and 2 million in Middle East-North Africa.

Protestants account for nearly forty percent of Christians worldwide and more than one tenth of the total human population. Various estimates put the percentage of Protestants in relation to the total number of world's Christians at 33%, 36%, 36.7%, and 40%, while in relation to the world's population at 11.6% and 13%. In European countries which were most profoundly influenced by the Reformation, Protestantism still remains the most practiced religion. These include the and the United Kingdom.

In other historical Protestant strongholds such as Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Latvia, Estonia and Hungary, it remains one of the most popular religions. Although Czech Republic was the site of, there are only few Protestant adherents; mainly due to historical reasons like persecution of Protestants by the, restrictions during the, and also the ongoing.

Over the last several decades, religious practice has been declining as has increased. According to a 2012 study about Religiosity in the European Union in 2012 by, Protestants made up 12% of the population. According to, Protestants constituted nearly one fifth (or 17.8%) of the in 2010. Clarke and Beyer estimate that Protestants constituted 15% of all Europeans in 2009, while Noll claims that less than 12% of them lived in Europe in 2010. Changes in worldwide Protestantism over the last century have been significant. Since 1900, Protestantism has spread rapidly in Africa, Asia, Oceania and Latin America. That caused Protestantism to be called a primarily non-Western religion.

Much of the growth has occurred after, when and abolition of in countries occurred. According to one source, Protestants constituted respectively 2.5%, 2%, 0.5% of Latin Americans, Africans and Asians. In 2000, percentage of Protestants on mentioned continents was 17%, more than 27% and 5.5%, respectively. According to Mark A. Noll, 79% of lived in the United Kingdom in 1910, while most of the remainder was found in the United States and across the. By 2010, 59% of Anglicans were found in Africa. In 2010, more Protestants lived in India than in the UK or Germany, while Protestants in Brazil accounted for as many people as Protestants in the UK and Germany combined.

Almost as many lived in each of and China as in all of Europe. China is home to world's largest Protestant minority. Protestantism is growing in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and Oceania, while declining in and Europe, with some exceptions such as France, where it was eradicated after the abolition of the by the and the following persecution of, but now is claimed to be stable in number or even growing slightly. According to some, is another country to see a Protestant revival. In 2010, the largest Protestant denominational families were historically Pentecostal denominations (10.8%), Anglican (10.6%), Lutheran (9.7%), Baptist (9%), (unions of different denominations) (7.2%), Presbyterian or Reformed (7%), Methodist (3.4%), Adventist (2.7%), Congregationalist (0.5%), (0.5%), (0.3%) and (0.1%). Other denominations accounted for 38.2% of Protestants. United States is home to approximately 20% of Protestants.

According to a 2012 study, Protestant share of U.S. Population dropped to 48%, thus ending its status as religion of the majority for the first time. The decline is attributed mainly to the dropping membership of the churches, while and are stable or continue to grow.

By 2050, Protestantism is projected to rise to slightly more than half of the world's total Christian population. According to other experts such as Hans J. Hillerbrand, Protestants will be as numerous as Catholics. According to of the, popular Protestantism is the most dynamic religious movement in the contemporary world, alongside the resurgent. See also [ ].

This is the first of three fascinating volumes in which Braudel, the renowned historian and celebrated author of The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World, offers what is in effect an economic and social history of the world from the Middle Ages to the Industrial Revolution. Like everything he writes, it is new, stimulating and sparkles like champagne. Braudel's techniq This is the first of three fascinating volumes in which Braudel, the renowned historian and celebrated author of The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World, offers what is in effect an economic and social history of the world from the Middle Ages to the Industrial Revolution.

Like everything he writes, it is new, stimulating and sparkles like champagne. Braudel's technique, it has been said, is that of a pointilliste. Myriads of separate details, sharp glimpses of reality experienced by real people, are seen miraculously to orchestrate themselves into broad rhythms that underlie and transcend the excitements and struggles of particular periods. Braudel sees the past as we see the present — only in a longer perspective and over a wider field.The perspective is that of the possible, of the actual material limitations to human life in any given time or place. It is the every¬day, the habitual — the obvious that is so obvious it has hitherto been neglected by historians — that Braudel claims for a new and vast and enriching province of history.

Food and drink, dress and housing, demography and family structure, energy and technology, money and credit, and, above all, the growth of towns, that powerful agent of social and economic development, are described in all the richness and complexity of real life. The intensely visual quality of Braudel's understanding of history is brought into sharper focus by the remarkable series of illustrations that of themselves would make this book incomparable FERNAND BRAUDEL was born in 1902, received a degree in history in 1923, and subsequently taught in Algeria, Paris and Sao Paulo. He spent five years as a prisoner of war in Germany, during which time he wrote his grand thesis, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, which was published in 1949. In 1946 he became a member of the editorial board of Annates, the famous journal founded by Marc Bloch and Lucian Febvre, whom he succeeded at the College de France in 1949. He has been a member of the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes and since 1962 has been chief administrator of the Maison des Sciences de l'Homme. Professor Braudel holds honorary doctor¬ates from universities all over the world. Jacket painting: Detail from Breughel the Elder's The Fall of Icarus, from the Musees Royaux des Beaux-Arts, Brussels.

(Giraudon) 'Braudel deserves a Nobel Prize.... [This is] the most remarkable picture of human life in the centuries before the human condition was radically changed by the growth of industry that has yet been presented. A book of great originality, a masterpiece.' Plumb, The Washington Post 'Braudel's books enthrall.

He is brilliant in demonstrating how most history is written on the backs of most people.' —John Leonard, The New York Times 'Even a preliminary glance at The Structures of Everyday Life shows a book that has no obvious compeer either in scope of reference or level of accessibility to the general reader.

Its broad authority remains deeply impressive.' —Richard Holmes, Harper's 'Here is vast erudition, beautifully arranged, presented with grace of style, with humility before life's complexity and warm humanist feeling. Braudel's subject is nothing less than every¬day life all over the world before the industrial revolution. He succeeds triumphantly in his first purpose: 'if not to see everything, at least to locate everything, and on the requisite world scale.' ' —Angus Calder, The Standard 'On neither side of the Atlantic does there live a man or woman with so much knowledge of the past as Braudel, or with a greater sense of its aptness to the intellectual occasion in hand.You can't pick up this big fat book without having your attention transfixed by something or other, if only the great gallery of pictures.

They are a masterpiece in themselves.' —Peter Laslett, The Guardian 'This new book is unarguably a brilliant survey of demog¬raphy, urbanisation, transport, technology, food, clothing, housing, money and business, social classes, state power and international trade in the fifteenth to the eighteenth centuries.' —Theodore Zeldin, The Listener ----- By examining in detail the material life of preindustrial peoples around the world, Fernand Braudel significantly changed the way historians view their subject. Volume I describes food and drink, dress and housing, demography and family structure, energy and technology, money and credit, and the growth of towns. Books, even history books, run away with their authors. This one has run ahead of me. But what can one say about its waywardness, its whims, even its own logic, that will be serious and valid?

Our children do as they please. And yet we are responsible for their actions. I have a discovered a recent treat, finishing a book early in the morning and basking in its brilliance during the day. There is something more indulgent than ascetic in the practice. Braudel's magnificent first volume was complet Books, even history books, run away with their authors.

This one has run ahead of me. But what can one say about its waywardness, its whims, even its own logic, that will be serious and valid? Our children do as they please. And yet we are responsible for their actions. I have a discovered a recent treat, finishing a book early in the morning and basking in its brilliance during the day. There is something more indulgent than ascetic in the practice.

Braudel's magnificent first volume was completed oh so early today while I listened to obscure chamber music. The effect was nearly intoxicating.

Asserting a distinction between the Material Economy and the Market Economy, Braudel attempts to delineate the former as constituted in the daily rituals and practices of humans in their disparate environments. It is the toil of the quotidian.

It is the gulf between wealth and poverty. The study displayed isn't an evolution but rather a series of processes, inspirations and missteps. There isn't a narrative here. Adroit GRer Katie noted the abundance of detail and how one should allow it 'to breathe.' Hundreds of pages on cereal production and furniture conclude without a sense of surfeit. Maybe it is a testament to Braudel's brilliance, but one never thinks, this is too much.

The engine of material progress appears to be necessity. But eachproverbial page isn't tured until 'it is time.' Overcrowding and offshore resources kept pressure on the metaphorical envelope. Cities appear to combust this creative spirit, even as the swells lamented the rising tide of the rabble. China appears to have held all the cards at one time.

Did Islam simply run out of trees to maintain its conquering posture? Venice certainly displayed poise and style periodically. Braudel appears a bit cheeky with his notes on revolutions: in this case, artillery, moveable type and oceanic navigation. I was going to separate credit but that would be unwise.

Credit is a remarkable agent for developments as well as minatory movement. This is probably one of the most fun books of economic history I've ever read. A newer word which I enjoy hearing is 'world-building', or the process by which a writer establishes the setting and background of their stories. Braudel builds a world here. Braudel delves into the history and development of food and drink, diseases, of houses, of all the details of life in Europe (well, mostly Europe) in the era from 1500-1800, and that long transformation of the global economy. I suspect that a majo This is probably one of the most fun books of economic history I've ever read.

A newer word which I enjoy hearing is 'world-building', or the process by which a writer establishes the setting and background of their stories. Braudel builds a world here. Braudel delves into the history and development of food and drink, diseases, of houses, of all the details of life in Europe (well, mostly Europe) in the era from 1500-1800, and that long transformation of the global economy. I suspect that a major audience for this book is not only the economic or social historian, but also the historical novelist who craves the most accurate detail.

Let's be clear: This is how it's done. This is how the structures and flows and mapping of another world, another time are analysed. This is how it's done. The first volume of Braudel's 3-volume 'Structures of Everyday Life: Civilisation and Capitalism, 15th-18th-C.' Is magisterial in the clear sense of the word: the work of a master.

This isn't narrative history. I'll warn you about that. This is an analysis of the bones of history, of the economics and commerce and geography and cl Okay, then. Let's be clear: This is how it's done. This is how the structures and flows and mapping of another world, another time are analysed. This is how it's done. The first volume of Braudel's 3-volume 'Structures of Everyday Life: Civilisation and Capitalism, 15th-18th-C.'

Is magisterial in the clear sense of the word: the work of a master. This isn't narrative history. I'll warn you about that.

This is an analysis of the bones of history, of the economics and commerce and geography and climate and demographics that undergird all the stories. You read it for a very different kind of pleasure than you get with Gibbon or Ranke. There's not a story here--- but there is a world.

Open this book anywhere and dive in. You'll find yourself immersed in the structures of the world and how the pieces fit together and how the rhythms of change work. Braudel and his followers re-cast how history was written--- they made it an imperial science, annexing sociology and geography and economics and medicine and geology and agronomy all into service of analysing the long-term rhythms and structures that go on beneath events.

The three volumes of this series---- well, just get them. And watch a master build up a world and a time from all the half-seen pieces. Fernand Braudel is one of the few authors out there who writes books that people call terribly boring and hugely interesting for exactly the same reason: his approach to history is a amass a huge pile of details and then let them breathe. There are 100 pages about population, and a solid 40 about growing wheat.

There are whole subchapters about furniture. This book takes a view of world history from 1500-1800 and delves especially into issues of population, food, drink, fashion, technology and m Fernand Braudel is one of the few authors out there who writes books that people call terribly boring and hugely interesting for exactly the same reason: his approach to history is a amass a huge pile of details and then let them breathe. There are 100 pages about population, and a solid 40 about growing wheat. There are whole subchapters about furniture. This book takes a view of world history from 1500-1800 and delves especially into issues of population, food, drink, fashion, technology and money.

Sometimes connections are made, sometimes they're implied, but mostly Braudel brings together little bits and pieces and tries to make them add up into a picture. I'd imagine that for the vast majority of readers out there, there are going to be a couple chapters in here that you think are awesome, and a couple where you wonder why he feels the need to be so all-inclusive about details that don't immediately seem to be all that pertinent. I remember reading once that the best way to read a Braudel book is to pick it up at random, and read little pieces here and there. I think it's kind of a fair point. Taken in big chunks it's a bit overwhelming, but in little pieces it's full of fascinating information. It's the details here that really shine, and let Braudel explore a world that's often ignored in favor of the bigger political events.

That said, the work does feel rather piecemeal on occasion, as if it's more a collection of neat anecdotes than a full book. Braudel's work is considered to be one of the seminal works in documenting the evolution of everyday life (throughout many centuries) and how it played into the bringing about the modern world.

Braudel wasn't interested in kings, battles or the rise and fall of empires and kingdoms. Braudel's interest was in economics, food production, living spaces and so on. In 2014 this style of historical research isn't radical or unusual and even historians who are primarily focused on the big picture will Braudel's work is considered to be one of the seminal works in documenting the evolution of everyday life (throughout many centuries) and how it played into the bringing about the modern world. Braudel wasn't interested in kings, battles or the rise and fall of empires and kingdoms. Braudel's interest was in economics, food production, living spaces and so on. In 2014 this style of historical research isn't radical or unusual and even historians who are primarily focused on the big picture will often dedicate a chapter or two talking about the economic and social conditions of the time. So what seemed fresh and different thirty-five years ago might come across as a bit threadbare now.

That is if one insists on taking that attitude. 'The Structures of Everyday Life' is a work that is an archetype (no I don't want to debate that statement.

This isn't college.) and should be read with that in mind. Yes there has been more research since Braudel lived and was the primary leader of what is called the Annales School (style of historiography developed by French historians in the 20th century to stress long-term social history) and not all by French historians. But the work is still very interesting and still has a fresh feeling to it. That's says something about Braudel and the ground that he broke. Perhaps I liked it because I have come to appreciate how the simplest things can have such a dramatic effect on our everyday existence.

Such as the humble dental filling can prevent an infection from invading your body or the ho-hum eye exam can now catch a brain tumor. These things are not battles and emperors. These things effect us as much as those big events. Maybe more so. We now live longer because of those simple things.

As a result (well at least partially) there are now more of us. Can you honestly say that hasn't had an effect on the world? Yet who would wish to return to the conditions of 16th century Europe? This is what interested Braudel and what now interests me. 'The Structures of Everyday Life' is a very dense work and is not a book that is easily breezed through. I am certain that part of that can be attributed to the fact that the book has been translated from French.

I've often found translated works to be more challenging - especially academic works. Nevertheless I enjoyed this book and I would strongly recommend it to those who are curious about how people lived and how their lives have changed over the centuries. How our lives have changed.

Those who think about the apocalypse, and wonder if it will happen to us, should read this book and be reminded that great tragedies are the norm, rather than the exception for most of human history. I'm going to start a review of this book even though I'm not done with it, because I think I may not finish it. It's a little on the pedantic side, with the author using academese and endeavoring to prove the merits of his methodology even at the cost of readability. It has illustrations, which are n Those who think about the apocalypse, and wonder if it will happen to us, should read this book and be reminded that great tragedies are the norm, rather than the exception for most of human history. I'm going to start a review of this book even though I'm not done with it, because I think I may not finish it. It's a little on the pedantic side, with the author using academese and endeavoring to prove the merits of his methodology even at the cost of readability.

It has illustrations, which are nice. For a writer, this is a good sort of book to read if one is writing about anything pre-industrial. The omnipresences of famine, plague, and wars slips our mind when we are fortunate enough to be healthy, fat, and safe. For those prone to depression, it's a bit hard to read of the endless misery and brutality of most of human existence. Update: nearly two weeks later, and I'm still reading it. This is why I hate research.

Because you read books that are informative but BORING. Really, I get that he's done a gazillion hours of research, but did he have to put everything in?

And it's so Eurocentric that even I'm a little offended. I'm still learning interesting facts, like that Europe seemed to be the only place where people ruthlessly followed clothing fashions, but I'm also learning boring and useless things, like how many quintals of wheat a horse could thresh as opposed to a pair of oxen. Don't know if I'm going to finish it or not. I feel like I've got sunk costs now, but damn, it's boring. Why oh why can't historians write well? Do they really think we're going to be impressed by big words and lots of details? Do they really think that convoluted sentence structure makes us think they're smarter?

The writer is trying to cover four centuries of life, all over the world, but he skips Africa and Australia almost entirely, dwells on France overmuch, and tends to throw everything together with such poor organization that it's hard to tell which fact relates to which century. After this I'm going to have to read some YA to cleanse my palette. What is up with the French since the end of World War II? They are producing first rate minds of a caliber unmatched by any other Western country. I had never heard of the author until he was recommended to me and now, after I finish Vol II and III, I am going to look for other authors from the same school of analysis.

Books like this I judge by how many times I have stopped reading and thought about what was on the page I had just digested. It happened frequently during this book.

Well written, What is up with the French since the end of World War II? They are producing first rate minds of a caliber unmatched by any other Western country. I had never heard of the author until he was recommended to me and now, after I finish Vol II and III, I am going to look for other authors from the same school of analysis. Books like this I judge by how many times I have stopped reading and thought about what was on the page I had just digested. It happened frequently during this book.

Well written, and a deceptively easy read. What were some of the things this book left me pondering? Cities; why they exist; what they represent; how they are organized. China; the transfer of technology; social structure and the use of manpower Energy; how it transforms and what reliance on oil could mean. The first volume of Braudel’s massive work on the construction of capitalism in the 15th to 18th century sets the stage for all that is to come.

It is an exhaustive survey of the social and economics conditions in Europe and, to a lesser extent, the rest of the world at the beginning of the 15th century. The amount of primary research that went into this is mind boggling. Everything you ever wanted to know about how much livestock the average farmer in Batvia had to what were the trends in fashio The first volume of Braudel’s massive work on the construction of capitalism in the 15th to 18th century sets the stage for all that is to come. It is an exhaustive survey of the social and economics conditions in Europe and, to a lesser extent, the rest of the world at the beginning of the 15th century. The amount of primary research that went into this is mind boggling.

Everything you ever wanted to know about how much livestock the average farmer in Batvia had to what were the trends in fashion in the courts of Europe is covered here in great detail. As I said in my review of volume two of this work* Braudel is all over the place in these books, chasing every detail and argument to their end, and it can be difficult to grasp the important threads running through the work. In the first volume this isn’t as much of an issue. Braudel is still all over the place, but since he is really only setting the stage, it isn’t as important to try and pick up his overall theory. Volume two is where he really lays out his argument for the separation of capitalism and the market and why certain places in Europe became economic power houses and others didn’t.** As in volume two, Braudel is at his best when he’s discussing Europe, and is out of his depth when he deals with the rest of the world.

There is a trove of good information in this first volume however, and I would recommend it to the academics out there if only because at some point you may need to be able to speak on the Dutch economy in 1500 or the clothes worn in England by the aristocracy in 1600 and this is the place to get all that good info. *b/t/w I am amusing the shit out of myself by doing these reviews in a forward and backward chronology. ** This is also an idea that he returns to in extreme detail in volume three, which I am about a quarter done with and findkind of ehh, actually. Not a bad book. Too detailed for me though overall and I must admit that I had to skip it in places. The book is about the way in which Europe predominantly segued into the 19th century and it covers the 15th – 18th centuries and all the fascinating things that happened.

It juxtaposes developments in Europe against what happened in the Islamic world, china and India most of the time. The book has some really random chapters in it. It covered: populations around the world, development of food, th Not a bad book.

Too detailed for me though overall and I must admit that I had to skip it in places. The book is about the way in which Europe predominantly segued into the 19th century and it covers the 15th – 18th centuries and all the fascinating things that happened. It juxtaposes developments in Europe against what happened in the Islamic world, china and India most of the time. The book has some really random chapters in it. It covered: populations around the world, development of food, the spread of technology and revolutions, money and the last section talks about towns and cities around the world. This, the first volume of Braudel's magnum opus, is a wide-ranging world tour of everyday life and it's varied conditions in the pre-industrial world. So much ink has been spilled on the Annales School of history that I feel that I have little to add on that, but Braudel is a pleasure to read, and doing so makes me wish that I had a better memory to keep track the endlessly fascinating facts and anecdotes that inhabit every page.

One should also note that reading such a long work is not the chor This, the first volume of Braudel's magnum opus, is a wide-ranging world tour of everyday life and it's varied conditions in the pre-industrial world. So much ink has been spilled on the Annales School of history that I feel that I have little to add on that, but Braudel is a pleasure to read, and doing so makes me wish that I had a better memory to keep track the endlessly fascinating facts and anecdotes that inhabit every page. One should also note that reading such a long work is not the chore it might seem to be, as the books are lavishly illustrated and packed full of period paintings, maps and charts. I look forward to the next two volumes. Incredibly broad and dense look at elements of daily life around the world, including housing, food, money, clothes, transportation, and more. Exhaustively researched, and very insightful. His points tend to get away from him though.

It's less of a problem in the middle, but in the chapters on population and later on cities, he gets lost in his own argument and then just hares off on random points before dropping the entire line of inquiry. Also, weighted very heavily towards European history. B Incredibly broad and dense look at elements of daily life around the world, including housing, food, money, clothes, transportation, and more. Exhaustively researched, and very insightful.

His points tend to get away from him though. It's less of a problem in the middle, but in the chapters on population and later on cities, he gets lost in his own argument and then just hares off on random points before dropping the entire line of inquiry. Also, weighted very heavily towards European history. But a fantastic overview with ambitious breadth. Longer review to come after I finish parts II and III.

So far, though, I feel comfortable saying that this is one of the most eye-opening and awe-inspiring works of history I've ever read, one of the few that really impresses me with the sheer size of the past, while maintaining readable and pleasant prose throughout. Braudel is a master of giving details on details which slowly cohere into some kind of pattern, and then pulling back to give a smart, crisp conclusion which makes that pattern com Longer review to come after I finish parts II and III. So far, though, I feel comfortable saying that this is one of the most eye-opening and awe-inspiring works of history I've ever read, one of the few that really impresses me with the sheer size of the past, while maintaining readable and pleasant prose throughout. Braudel is a master of giving details on details which slowly cohere into some kind of pattern, and then pulling back to give a smart, crisp conclusion which makes that pattern come completely into focus. My first exposure to Braudel and the Annales School was in a historiography class I took for my history degree. It was an excerpt from THE MEDITERRANEAN and it left quite the impression on me. Let's do history without the 'big men', without the wars and battles, and without a narrative recursively serving the needs of one economic worldview or another.

Instead, let's start literally from the ground up. THE STRUCTURES OF EVERYDAY LIFE is not as comprehensive as THE MEDITERRANEAN seems (I haven't f My first exposure to Braudel and the Annales School was in a historiography class I took for my history degree. It was an excerpt from THE MEDITERRANEAN and it left quite the impression on me. Let's do history without the 'big men', without the wars and battles, and without a narrative recursively serving the needs of one economic worldview or another. Instead, let's start literally from the ground up.

THE STRUCTURES OF EVERYDAY LIFE is not as comprehensive as THE MEDITERRANEAN seems (I haven't finished the latter yet), and I think it made it that much more enjoyable to me. Braudel sets out in this first volume of three to discuss the formulative centuries before the Industrial Revolution.

He focuses on everyday things, from food to furniture, who used them, how they used them, who used what, and so forth. He even adds a comparative aspect as he includes civilizations outside of Europe such as China, the New World, and Islam. The book was fascinating, much more so than one would expect from a history book literally on the mundane. But Braudel (and/or the English translator Sian Reynolds) writes prose engaging enough and convincing enough to draw the reader in to see just why the change in food types from 15th to 18 century France matters in the scheme of modernity.

The author also utilizes a dense and diverse amount of quantitative data, as well as interesting qualitative bits such as the foregrounds of paintings and the diaries of world travelers. The result is a work of history that is both uncharacteristically empirical and creative, a classic work of the Annales. The book does a have a few flaws, most notably its datedness.

Braudel, as forward thinking as he was in the 1960s to even include non-European countries for comparision, does not treat them equally enough (this could be due to limited access to sources and his limited expertise in the areas like China). Braudel uses terminalogy that is not PC today, such as Tartar and Black Africa, and he seems to use Turks and Islam interchangeably. The book does lag a bit sometimes, often in sections were Braudel unleashes a flurry of statistics about seemingly every city in France or other European country. It's obvious Braudel has a special connection with his native country, and one can't blame him for using the data most readily available to him, but at times he seriously belabors the point he's trying to illustrate.

In conclusion, the book is an excellent read, and a great way to be introduced to the French Annales School and its master, Fernand Braudel. By the end, the reader will see the world they live in past, present, and future, in a new light. The little things matter, and reveal an incredible amount about culture an society. Okay first of all: the glue used in the binding of this book is truly not good?

I bought it used in 'Very Good' condition, and somewhere in the middle of the process of being shipped to me, it divided neatly into two big 'blocks.' This made reading the early chapters miserable: pages coming off in my hands, etc. I do not remember as much about the early chapters of this book as a result. Fortunately the book is good enough to make that really the only iffy thing I can say about it (I guess there Okay first of all: the glue used in the binding of this book is truly not good? I bought it used in 'Very Good' condition, and somewhere in the middle of the process of being shipped to me, it divided neatly into two big 'blocks.'

This made reading the early chapters miserable: pages coming off in my hands, etc. I do not remember as much about the early chapters of this book as a result.

Fortunately the book is good enough to make that really the only iffy thing I can say about it (I guess there is also some weird Orientalist/colonialist shade thrown on Precolombian S American religious culture and West Asian monarchy, but I mean this book was primarily written in what, 1950something France? Coulda been much worse.) Basically an exceedingly tight-focus look at Life Among People In The Past, categorized almost by trade good: what grains did people eat? Where did they come from?

What about alcohol? What about bathrooms? It's a slog to the extent that there's essentially no narrative in this volume--basically a 560-page preamble to the narrative of Capitalism's Rise that I think comes only in the final book.

It is sort of like Moby Dick: 30 pages of FIGHTING THE TITULAR WHALE balanced out by 600 pages of intense descriptions of sperm extraction and cetological historiography. This is an important balance for a book to strike. More books ought to have this balance. It is frustrating, however. Kings and battles are a distant afterthought--it was actually very jarring, in the end of the book, to read about St.

Petersburg with only scant reference to Peter the Great, with focus much more on the kind of slab foundations you had to use to build a city on the swamps, and where such foundations had to come from, and what sorts of trade networks enabled this. Do you want to know what kinds of coins were used in different regions, and why?

Do you want to know about the effects of road maintenance on town planning? What about the caloric yield per peasant of rice vs maize vs wheat, and the effects of each on the psychospiritual character of a whole civilization??? I did not know how much everything in my mind was screaming, yearning for this book. How much I needed to know these things. Reading the endnotes is also wonderful: the endnotes were RETROACTIVELY, many years after the initial text had been published, and somehow Braudel managed to assemble hundreds of citations per chapter of things like exact figures of wine production in certain French provinces.

Sometimes, apologetically, he has to just cite 'Reference mislaid,' and he seems very broken up about it. Epic in both vision and execution, Braudel's 'Stuctures of Civiliisation' turns your accustomed way of thinking about history up side down. In writing his history of the world from the 14th to 18th centuries, Braudel eschews the personalities and events that fill the pages of most history. Instead, he focuses on the day-to-day lifes of normal (non-elite) in an attempt to compare and contrast the various civilisations, sub-civilisations and cultures of the world. Although the chapter titles sound Epic in both vision and execution, Braudel's 'Stuctures of Civiliisation' turns your accustomed way of thinking about history up side down. In writing his history of the world from the 14th to 18th centuries, Braudel eschews the personalities and events that fill the pages of most history. Instead, he focuses on the day-to-day lifes of normal (non-elite) in an attempt to compare and contrast the various civilisations, sub-civilisations and cultures of the world.

Although the chapter titles sound mundane (daily bread, food and drink, money, etc.) this book is not boring. Fully illustrated with maps, charts and paintings, Braudel creates a classic of history.

Crucially, he also integrates teaching from fields like geography and economics. The over all effect of the work is breathtaking: it's no wonder that a quick googling of the author's name turns up university based institutes of inter-disciplinary study named after him on three (count them three!) continents.

On the negative side, well, the book is about twenty years old, so much of the research he uses has been updated. I don't think you can deny that the man is a little euro and franco centric (not that I have a problem with that, I don't.) Over all, this is a path breaking work, and should be on the book shelve for all fans of world history. I received this book as a gift from my maternal grandmother in 1982. In the thirty three years since Mum made me promise to read the entire three-volume set if she bought it I have conjured a thousand reasons to wait.

She passed away more than a decade ago and only now have I managed to keep a third of my promise. In The Structures of Everyday Life, Braudel presents a densely quantified history of human experience around the world in the three hundred years before the Industrial Revolution. Ther I received this book as a gift from my maternal grandmother in 1982. In the thirty three years since Mum made me promise to read the entire three-volume set if she bought it I have conjured a thousand reasons to wait. She passed away more than a decade ago and only now have I managed to keep a third of my promise. In The Structures of Everyday Life, Braudel presents a densely quantified history of human experience around the world in the three hundred years before the Industrial Revolution. There's no narrative here.

The book is organized into sections on population, disease, agriculture, food, housing, technology, money, and towns and cities. In each case, Braudel surveys contemporaneous practices and context in China, India, the Middle East, and Europe with snippets from the Americas and Africa.

For me, the filth of city life (by modern standards) and the cyclical catastrophes from plague and famine throughout the 15th to 18th centuries are reminders that, (1) humans can habituate to almost any circumstance, and (2) social, political, and material progress may not have reached their apex in the 21st century but nostalgia for the past is a profoundly misguided emotion. Even before the iPhone. Memorial stars. This was my introduction to the Annales school of history, and definitely an eye-opening paradigm shift. For whatever reason, I tend to identify with the Sancho Panzas of the world, and in college I avoided all history (except for ancient) as essentially presenting a litany of kings (or emperors, or Popes, or Imams, or whatever. The rich and powerful, in short) quixotically fighting with each other--though the actual loss of life largely devolved upon their subjects. In Braudel Memorial stars.

This was my introduction to the Annales school of history, and definitely an eye-opening paradigm shift. For whatever reason, I tend to identify with the Sancho Panzas of the world, and in college I avoided all history (except for ancient) as essentially presenting a litany of kings (or emperors, or Popes, or Imams, or whatever. The rich and powerful, in short) quixotically fighting with each other--though the actual loss of life largely devolved upon their subjects. In Braudel at last, and rather late in life, I found the approach to history I did not know I had been looking for (though my love of immersive historical fiction should have given me a clue).

Braudel is not for everybody in his exhaustive detail, and in his deliberate focus on the 'humdrum,' but he is definitely for me. For reasons largely personal (perhaps due to my heritage), I prefer The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II. This three-volume set should be required reading for anyone with a serious interest in the pre-industrial past. The work abounds with useful information on the past conditions of everyday life on a wide variety of subjects. I was interested while reading to gauge Braudel's economic theories--he more or less equates capitalism with big business and admits that market trade at least at the smaller level of everyday life was largely beneficial to the people. It makes an interesting read in terms of This three-volume set should be required reading for anyone with a serious interest in the pre-industrial past.

The work abounds with useful information on the past conditions of everyday life on a wide variety of subjects. I was interested while reading to gauge Braudel's economic theories--he more or less equates capitalism with big business and admits that market trade at least at the smaller level of everyday life was largely beneficial to the people. It makes an interesting read in terms of the shifting definitions of capitalism current in the literature and reminds us that when different authors talk about capitalism that they are using the same term to refer to numerous different things. A rare look at the actual history of the world. 'The history of the world is but the biography of great men' is a phrase that has haunted historiography from Thucydides to today. Most historians will dismiss the Great Man theory, but that doesn't keep the field from continuing to frame history in those terms—in terms of secular, religious, and military leaders. Braudel has done the opposite.

Fascinating portraits of a wide range of topics. Its faults are admitted by Braudel: the Americas, Africa, A rare look at the actual history of the world. 'The history of the world is but the biography of great men' is a phrase that has haunted historiography from Thucydides to today. Most historians will dismiss the Great Man theory, but that doesn't keep the field from continuing to frame history in those terms—in terms of secular, religious, and military leaders. Braudel has done the opposite.

Fascinating portraits of a wide range of topics. Its faults are admitted by Braudel: the Americas, Africa, and Oceania are widely ignored, and the wide range of topics discussed necessitates a summary view rather than a comprehensive one. Still: great stuff. Important stuff.

It's hard to imagine a modern historical landscape without Braudel's influence. I really, really like the idea of a 'bottom up' history that takes into account all the raw material that makes up everyday life. OK, so he's a Eurocentrist and, maybe worse, a Francocentrist. Take the bad with the good. I'd probably like him a bit more if he focused on specific material histories rather than trying to write a History of Everything Everywhere, but if I think of this as a theoretical primer ra It's hard to imagine a modern historical landscape without Braudel's influence. I really, really like the idea of a 'bottom up' history that takes into account all the raw material that makes up everyday life.

OK, so he's a Eurocentrist and, maybe worse, a Francocentrist. Take the bad with the good. I'd probably like him a bit more if he focused on specific material histories rather than trying to write a History of Everything Everywhere, but if I think of this as a theoretical primer rather than an explicit history, I'm much more fond of it. This book is extremely difficult to read. It is wordy, drawn out, and spends a lot of time circling around ideas to lay them out.

It takes 100 pages to convey 2 pages of ideas, or at least feels this way. The overall experience is laborious. Its saving grace is the materiality, the substance the author addresses. It is great to see a work that focuses more profoundly on how human life functions, and less on the political events that constitute the substance of most historical accounts. I hope to This book is extremely difficult to read.

It is wordy, drawn out, and spends a lot of time circling around ideas to lay them out. It takes 100 pages to convey 2 pages of ideas, or at least feels this way. The overall experience is laborious. Its saving grace is the materiality, the substance the author addresses. It is great to see a work that focuses more profoundly on how human life functions, and less on the political events that constitute the substance of most historical accounts.

I hope to pick it back up again someday and see if I can get through some more. I don't know if I'll ever finish this - I use it mainly to read myself to sleep, and my edition is so shittily bound that it is falling apart. But it's great stuff - fascinating delving into everything from cereal production to patent applications, with a meandering narrative that somehow brings out the wider implications of all the minutiae in interesting ways.

It purports to be global, but like most things written by Western authors that purport to be global, it has a heavy European focus, tho I don't know if I'll ever finish this - I use it mainly to read myself to sleep, and my edition is so shittily bound that it is falling apart. But it's great stuff - fascinating delving into everything from cereal production to patent applications, with a meandering narrative that somehow brings out the wider implications of all the minutiae in interesting ways. It purports to be global, but like most things written by Western authors that purport to be global, it has a heavy European focus, though the amount of time and attention given to a few selected other areas is respectable. Fernand Braudel was a French historian and a leader of the Annales School. His scholarship focused on three main projects: The Mediterranean (1923–49, then 1949–66), Civilization and Capitalism (1955–79), and the unfinished Identity of France (1970–85). His reputation stems in part from his writings, but even more from his success in making the Annales School the most important engine of historica Fernand Braudel was a French historian and a leader of the Annales School. His scholarship focused on three main projects: The Mediterranean (1923–49, then 1949–66), Civilization and Capitalism (1955–79), and the unfinished Identity of France (1970–85).

His reputation stems in part from his writings, but even more from his success in making the Annales School the most important engine of historical research in France and much of the world after 1950. As the dominant leader of the Annales School of historiography in the 1950s and 1960s, he exerted enormous influence on historical writing in France and other countries.

Braudel has been considered one of the greatest of the modern historians who have emphasized the role of large-scale socioeconomic factors in the making and writing of history. He can also be considered as one of the precursors of world-systems theory.